This article will help you revise the complete NCERT coverage of Medieval India quickly and effectively. It includes concise Indian History NCERT Part-2 Short Notes designed specially for UPSC aspirants.
Indian History Part-2
THROUGH THE EYES OF TRAVELLERS – Perceptions of Society (c. tenth to seventeenth century)
| Key Area | Relevant Facts and Systems | |
| Al-Biruni (11th Century) | Came from Khwarizm, Uzbekistan. Wrote the Kitab-ul-Hind (or Tahqiq-ma li’l-Hind) in Arabic. The text contains 80 chapters on various subjects, including philosophy, customs, and metrology. He used a distinctive structure in each chapter: question, description (based on Sanskritic traditions), and comparison with other cultures. | |
| Al-Biruni on Barriers | Identified three major “barriers” to understanding India: language (Sanskrit vs. Arabic/Persian), difference in religious beliefs and practices, and the insularity of the local population. | |
| Al-Biruni on Society | Explained the Indian caste system by finding parallels in ancient Persia (e.g., four social categories). Depended heavily on Brahmanical works (Vedas, Puranas, Manusmriti) for his understanding of society. | |
| Ibn Battuta (14th Century) | Traveled from Morocco. Wrote in Arabic, focusing on aspects unfamiliar to his readers. Described Indian cities (Delhi, Daulatabad) as having exciting opportunities. | |
| Ibn Battuta on Infrastructure | Gave a detailed description of the postal system: the horse-post (uluq), which ran by relay every four miles, and the foot-post (dawa), which ran by relay every three miles. | |
| François Bernier (17th Century) | French doctor, political philosopher, and historian. Served as a physician to Prince Dara Shukoh. Traveled in India from 1656 to 1668. Used binary opposition to frequently compare India unfavorably to Europe, often portraying the Indian situation as “bleak”. | |
| Bernier on Economy/Society | His main critique was the purported Crown ownership of land in the Mughal Empire, leading to peasant oppression. This view contributed to the concept of Oriental Despotism (Montesquieu) and the Asiatic Mode of Production (Marx). Asserted that there was “no middle state in India”. Noted that 15% of the population lived in towns, which was higher than in Western Europe at that time. He described Mughal cities as “camp towns,” dependent on imperial patronage. | |
| Bernier on Women | Highlighted the treatment of women as a crucial marker of difference, providing a detailed description of the practice of sati. |
Also Read: Indian History NCERT Part-1 Short Notes
BHAKTI – SUFI TRADITIONS – Changes in Religious Beliefs (c. eighth to eighteenth century)
This theme examines the great shifts in religious traditions, marked by the integration of local cults and the rise of devotional (Bhakti) and mystical (Sufi) movements.
| Key Area | Relevant Facts and Systems | |
| Integration of Cults | Historians note two processes: dissemination of Brahmanical ideas via Puranas (in simple Sanskrit, accessible to women and Shudras) and the Brahmanas accepting and reworking local beliefs. Example: Jagannatha (local deity made of wood by tribal specialists) in Puri identified as a form of Vishnu. | |
| Bhakti Classifications | Saguna Bhakti (with attributes), focused on deities like Shiva, Vishnu, and Devi, often in anthropomorphic form. Nirguna Bhakti (without attributes), focused on the worship of an abstract form of God. | |
| Tamil Bhakti (South India) | Earliest movements (c. 6th century) led by Alvars (devotees of Vishnu) and Nayanars (devotees of Shiva). They composed devotional hymns in Tamil and sometimes critiqued the caste system. Chola rulers provided patronage, exemplified by grants and temple construction. Karaikkal Ammaiyar was a female Nayanar saint. | |
| Virashaiva Tradition | Emerged in Karnataka in the 12th century, led by Basavanna. Followers were known as Virashaivas (heroes of Shiva) or Lingayats (wearers of the linga). They challenged the caste system and practiced burial instead of cremation. Sources are Kannada vachanas (sayings). | |
| Islamic Traditions | Ulama are scholars of Islamic studies. Zimmi (protected) status was given to followers of revealed scriptures (including Hindus in India), who paid a tax called jizya. The term Hindu did not necessarily carry a religious connotation for centuries. | |
| Sufism: Organization | Sufis sought salvation through intense devotion and love for God. They organized communities around a khanqah (hospice) led by a master (shaikh, pir, or murshid). The silsila (chain) signified the spiritual genealogy. The tomb-shrine is a dargah; the pilgrimage (ziyarat) occurs especially on the urs (death anniversary). Sufis were classified as ba-shari‘a (followed Islamic law) or be-shari‘a (did not comply). | |
| Chishtis | The most influential Sufi group in India (late 12th century). Major centers included Ajmer (Shaikh Muinuddin Sijzi) and Delhi (Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya). Practices included sama‘ (mystical music) and conversing in Hindavi. They accepted unsolicited grants (auqaf) from rulers but maintained distance from courtly power. | |
| Nirguna Bhakti Saints | Kabir (c. 14th-15th centuries) critiqued formal religion and emphasized a formless deity. His verses are compiled in the Kabir Bijak and the Adi Granth Sahib. Baba Guru Nanak (founder of Sikhism) rejected caste and rituals, advocating devotion to a formless rab. He organized followers into a sangat (community). His hymns (shabad) were compiled in the Guru Granth Sahib |
AN IMPERIAL CAPITAL: VIJAYANAGARA (c. fourteenth to sixteenth century)
This theme covers the history, governance, and monumental architecture of the Vijayanagara Empire (Karnataka samrajyamu).
| Key Area | Relevant Facts and Systems | |
| Foundation and Decline | Founded in the 14th century. Rulers referred to the empire as karnata samrajyamu. The city was sacked and deserted in 1565 after the Battle of Talikota (or Rakshasi-Tangadi) against the Deccan Sultanates. | |
| Dynasties and Rulers | Ruled by four dynasties: Sangama, Saluvas, Tuluvas, and Aravidu. Krishnadeva Raya (Tuluva dynasty, 1509–29) was the most famous. He wrote on statecraft in Telugu, the Amuktamalyada. He took pride in the title “establisher of the Yavana kingdom”. | |
| Amara-Nayaka System | A political innovation where military chiefs (nayakas) controlled territories and forts. They collected revenue to maintain their military contingents (horses/army) and sent annual tribute to the king. | |
| Urban Planning | The city was located near the Tungabhadra river. Water needs were met using tanks (like the Kamalapuram tank) and canals (like the Hiriya canal). | |
| Fortifications | Ambassador Abdur Razzaq mentioned seven lines of forts. Critically, the fortifications were extensive enough to enclose agricultural tracts. Construction was massive masonry using wedge-shaped stones without mortar. | |
| Royal Centre | Contained secular buildings, including the Lotus Mahal (known for Indo-Islamic arches, possibly a council chamber), and the largest structure, the enclosure of the “king’s palace”. Key structures included the Mahanavami Dibba (massive platform used for Dasara/Mahanavami rituals). | |
| Sacred Centre & Temples | Situated on hills associated with Virupaksha (guardian deity/Shiva) and local goddess Pampadevi. Temples featured massive Raya Gopurams (royal gateways) and halls (mandapas). The Virupaksha Temple was enlarged by Krishnadeva Raya. The Vitthala Temple worshipped Vitthala (a form of Vishnu) and featured a stone chariot shrine |
PEASANTS, ZAMINDARS AND THE STATE – Agrarian Society and the Mughal Empire (c. sixteenth-seventeenth centuries)
This theme explores agrarian society, administration, and resource management during the Mughal Empire, drawing primarily from the Ain-i Akbari.
| Key Area | Relevant Facts and Systems | |
| Sources | The most critical source is the Ain-i Akbari by Abu’l Fazl, completed in 1598. It provides a “view from the top”. | |
| Peasantry and Cultivation | Peasants were called raiyat or muzarian. Khud-kashta were resident cultivators, and Pahi-kashta were non-resident cultivators. Do-fasla (two crops a year) was practiced. Jins-i kamil (commercial crops) included cotton and sugarcane. Tobacco was introduced in the early 17th century. Irrigation methods observed by Babur included the wheel (Persian wheel) and the bucket lift. | |
| Village Governance | The panchayat was an oligarchy of elders headed by the muqaddam or mandal. Its main function was to uphold caste boundaries and regulate village affairs. Artisans provided services compensated by a share of the harvest. | |
| Women’s Roles | Women participated intensely in agricultural labor (sowing, weeding, harvesting) and processing raw produce. They could inherit milkiyat (landed property) among some zamindari classes. Some women headed large zamindaris (e.g., Rajshahi). | |
| Forest Dwellers | Classified as jangli (relying on shifting cultivation and hunting). Forest areas served as places of refuge (mawas). Tribal chiefs often became zamindars. | |
| Zamindars | Landed magnates who collected revenue and held milkiyat (personal lands). Maintained private fortresses (qilachas) and armed contingents (cavalry, infantry, elephants). | |
| Mughal Fiscal System | Land revenue was paid mostly in cash. Land classified based on cultivation frequency: Polaj (annually cultivated), Parauti (left fallow briefly), Chachar (fallow 3-4 years), Banjar (fallow 5+ years). Revenue assessment methods included kankut (estimate) and batai (division). Large amounts of silver flowed into India from global trade. | |
| Ain-i Akbari Structure | The Ain-i Akbari (Third book of the Akbar Nama) is organized into five books (daftars): 1. manzil-abadi (imperial household); 2. sipah-abadi (military/civil administration, mansabdars); 3. mulk-abadi (fiscal/statistical data on provinces, including jama, hasil, and zamindar castes) |
KINGS AND CHRONICLES – The Mughal Courts (c. sixteenth-seventeenth centuries)
This theme examines the ideology of the Mughal Empire, the system of governance, and the role of imperial chronicles and court life.
| Key Area | Relevant Facts and Systems | |
| Identity and Sources | Mughals referred to themselves as Timurids. Their dynastic histories (e.g., Akbar Nama) are called chronicles, serving to project imperial vision and ensure a record for posterity. | |
| Language and Production | Court language shifted from Turkish (Babur’s tongue) to Persian. Manuscripts produced in the kitabkhana (scriptorium). Calligraphy was a prized skill, with nastaliq (fluid style) being Akbar’s favorite; calligraphers held high status. Abu’l Fazl called painting a “magical art” for its ability to convey life and power. | |
| Major Chronicles | Akbar Nama by Abu’l Fazl (13 years work), comprising three books (including Ain-i Akbari). The Akbar Nama offered a diachronic (over time) and synchronic (snapshot) view of the empire. Badshah Nama (official history of Shah Jahan’s reign) by Abdul Hamid Lahori. | |
| Ideal Kingship and Inclusivity | Rulers saw themselves as appointed by Divine Will. Used the concept of Divine Light (farr-i izadi). The cornerstone of rule was sulh-i kul (absolute peace). This was enforced through a composite nobility (Iranis, Rajputs, Turanis, etc.). Akbar abolished the pilgrimage tax (1563) and jizya (1564). Sovereignty was a social contract where the king protected subjects’ life, property, honour, and faith. | |
| Court and Rituals | The capital shifted frequently (Agra, Fatehpur Sikri, Shahjahanabad). The throne (takht) was the center, viewed as the axis mundi. Status was determined by spatial proximity to the king. Daily routine included: jharoka (balcony appearance), diwan-i am (public hall), and diwan-i khas (private audience). Ceremonial greetings included kornish. | |
| Imperial Household | Known as the harem (sacred place). Jahanara (daughter of Shah Jahan) designed the Chandni Chowk bazaar. The Humayun Nama, a crucial memoir, was written by Gulbadan Begum (Babur’s daughter). | |
| Administration/Nobility | The administrative system was the Mansabdari System. Rank (mansab) consisted of two numerical designations: zat (position/salary) and sawar (horsemen maintained). The nobility (umara) was diverse. Key ministers included the mir bakhshi (paymaster/head of intelligence), diwan-i ala (finance), and sadr-us sudur (grants). Court writers (waqia nawis) recorded proceedings, filed as Akhbarat-i Darbar-i Mualla. Provincial administration was headed by the subadar. | |
| Foreign Relations | Relations with Iran (Safavids) often centered on control of Kabul and Qandahar. Relations with the Ottomans focused on ensuring free movement for merchants and pilgrims, especially to the Hijaz (Mecca and Medina). Jesuit missions visited Akbar’s court (first mission 1580). |
