Vedic period (1500BCE to 600BCE)
The extensive and complex Vedic Civilization, also referred to as the Vedic culture or the Vedic period, emerged in ancient India between 1500 and 600 BCE. It was set apart by the compilation of the Vedas, a body of sacred writings that form the basis of Hinduism, and the practice of the Vedic religion.
The complete wisdom, science, tradition, and culture of a unique civilization stem from the Vedas. These are oral collections of the cosmic knowledge that has endured since the beginning of time, reduced to its most basic form. They are acknowledged as the foundation of human civilization and Indian culture in addition to being scriptures.
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What is the Veda?
The root vid, which meaning “to know,” is where the term “Veda” originates. The holy wisdom found in the Vedic writings is referred to as the “Veda.”
- The Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda are the four Vedas.
- Due to their representation of the oral tradition of the period, these four Vedas are also known as “Samhitas.”
| The Four Vedas | |
| Rigveda | – The earliest Veda is the Rigveda. It is divided into 10 volumes, or mandalas.- It also contains the Purusha Shukta prayer (the story of Primal Man) and the well-known Gayatri mantra of Vishvamitra. – Hotri was the Rigvedic Priest’s name. |
| Yajurveda | – It functions as a kind of instruction book for the Adhvaryu priest, who was in charge of nearly every ceremonial duty involved in a sacrifice. – It is mostly written in prose. It is separated into two parts: the more contemporary “white” portion and the older “black” portion. |
| Samaveda | – From all four Vedas, the Samaveda is the shortest. It is composed of Rigvedic poems arranged in a poetic style for use in singing. – The Samaveda was written specifically with the Udagatar priest in view. |
| Atharvaveda | – A collection of magical charms and rituals intended to fend off illnesses and bad spirits is known as the Atharvaveda. – The most recent Veda, the Atharva Veda, has hymns (some from the Rig Veda). |
There are four sections in every Veda: the Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads.
| Samhitas | – The oldest section of the Vedas is the Samhitas. – It includes songs to God, prayers, litanies, and mantras. |
| Brahmanas | – The Samhita chapters are interpreted in prose in the Brahmanas. – It describes the sacrifice rites in full and explains their results. |
| Aranyakas | – The Aranyakas are books about living in the wild. – It offers a philosophical and symbolic interpretation of sacrifice rites. |
| Upanishads | – 13 of the 108 Upanishads are regarded as the most important. – They are filled with a wide range of philosophical concepts on the world, the body, and sacrifice. – They are most strongly connected to the ideas of Brahman and Atman. |
The Vedic Aryans were who?
The hymns of the Vedas were written by the Vedic Aryans. In the eighteenth century, Aryans were regarded as a race. The Aryans appear to have originated in the Steppes, which extends from southern Russia to Central Asia.
- From this region, a number of them moved to northwest India, where they were referred to as Indo-Aryans or just Aryans.
- It is believed that the Aryans include a language group that speaks Indo-European languages. Historians and archaeologists of the conventional school separate them from the non-Aryan Harappans of earlier times.
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Aryan migration
Attempts have been made by archaeologists to connect the Aryans with a variety of post-Harappan cultures.
There have been several references to Aryan artistry in relation to the Painted Grey Ware.
- The Andronovo Culture, found in southern Siberia, provides archeological proof of migrations. This Culture reached its peak in the second millennium BC.
- People crossed Hindukush and entered India from this point northward.
- Aryan language development: The newcomers arrived in many groups, and one of the significant outcomes of their contact was the spread of the Vedic variant of the Aryan language throughout Northwestern India.
- The Vedic Texts are the common name for the writings composed in this language.
Geographic Range of the Vedic Aryans
- The region known as sapta-sindhu, or the region of seven rivers, was home to the early Vedic Aryans.
- This covers all of Punjab and the surrounding areas of Haryana, although the Gomal plains, southern Afghanistan, and southern Jammu and Kashmir were also included in the Rigvedic geography.
- Among the seven rivers were:
- Sindhu,
- Vitasta (Jhelum),
- Asikni (Chenab),
- Parushni (Ravi),
- Vipash (Beas),
- Shutudri (Sutlej),
- Sarasvati
- Their progressive eastward movement during the Later Vedic period led them to inhabit north Bihar (Videha) and eastern U.P. (Kosala).
Vedic period, around 1500–600 BC
Vedic literature reflects two eras of progress in social and cultural history as well as literary.
- The Rigvedic period, often called the Early Vedic period, spans the period between 1500 and 1000 BC, when the Rigvedic hymns were written.
- The latter Vedic period, which is the latter stage, spans the time from 1000 BC to 600 BC.
The Early Vedic Period’s Sources
- Literary Sources: The Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda are the four Vedas that are mentioned in literary sources. The Rigveda is the oldest of these texts.
- The Rigvedic Samhita is divided into up to 10 volumes, or “Mandalas,” the earliest of which are thought to be books II through VII, which are especially associated with the Early Vedic Phase.
- Archaeological Sources: During the course of the last 40 years, several post-Harappan/Chalcolithic towns from Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and northern Rajasthan have been discovered during excavations along the Indus and Ghaggar rivers.
The Later Vedic Period’s Sources
- Literary Sources: The Rigvedic Samhita’s Books I, VIII, IX, and X are regarded as later additions. The latter additions, namely the Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda Samhitas as well as the 10th Mandala of the Rigveda Samhita, are the other Vedic books attributed to the latter Vedic era.
- Archaeological Sources: Rajasthan, Haryana, and the Western U.P. are mentioned several times in the literary sources.
- Iron is mentioned in the Rigveda as “ayas,” yet archeological evidence dates iron to the Later Vedic period.
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Political Life during the Vedic Period
The Early Vedic setup lacks a clearly defined political hierarchy; yet, changes throughout this time led to the emergence of a socio-political hierarchy, which became apparent in the ‘Later Vedic phase‘ with the creation of the Varna system. Most of the early Vedic civilization was egalitarian and based on tribal customs and traditions.
| Features | Political Life of the Early Vedic Period | Political Life of Later Vedic Period |
| Social Unit | – The Aryans’ chief social unit was known as Jana. | – The concept of janapada emerged. – In the Later Vedic texts, the word Rashtra was also used for the first time. |
| Chief/King | – Jana was headed by Rajan, whose main function was to protect the Jana and cattle from the enemies. | – The Rajan, or chief, now assumed the role of protector of the territory where his tribesmen had settled. |
| Post of Chief | – Not Hereditary and tribal assemblies were involved in the selection of the raja from amongst the clansmen. | – Hereditary and elaborate coronation rituals, such as vajapeya and rajasuya, established the chief authority. |
| Administration | – Rajan was helped in his task by the tribal assemblies called sabha, samiti, vidatha, gana and parishad, which are mentioned in the Rigveda.Sabha: council of select clan members Samiti comprised the whole clan. | – During this time, the sabha overtook the samiti in relevance. |
| Taxes | – The people gave the chief what is known as Bali.- It was simply a voluntary contribution made on special occasions by ordinary tribesmen. | – Bali, Bhaga and Shulka gradually assumed the form of regular tributes and taxes. |
| Army | – The Sena, or army, was a temporary fighting force made up of able-bodied tribesmen who were mobilised during wartime. | – A rudimentary army emerged, and all these lived on the taxes offered by the people. |
| Status of Brahmins | – The clans held large yajnas or sacrifices, which were performed by Purohita.- They received a large portion of the rajas’ gifts and assumed a superior position in comparison to the other members of the clan. | – As Rajanya’s importance grew, so did the Brahmanas. – The status of the officiating priests became at par with the gods in the later period.- The officiating brahmana had to be satisfied with Dana. |
Social Structure during the Vedic Period
The later Vedic period saw a significant increase in the complexity of the egalitarian, clan-based social structure that existed in the Early Vedic Period.Caste was not a factor in the division of Vedic society in the early periods; instead, the Varna system was used to do so.
| Features | Social Life of Early Vedic Period | Social Life of Later Vedic Period |
| Family | – The family belonged to a larger group known as a vis or clan.- One or more than one clan made Jana or tribe. – The Jana was the largest social unit. | – The family continues to be the fundamental unit of Vedic society.- With three or four generations living together, the later Vedic family grew large enough to be called a joint family. |
| Varna System | – There was no varna system in the early Vedic period. | – Four Varnas: The four varnas that came to divide society were the Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. |
| Status of Women | – Despite the patriarchal nature of society, women played an important role in it. They had been educated and were entitled to the assemblies.– Women poets: Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa, and Lopamudra.- They were free to choose their partners and could marry whenever they wanted. | – They were considered subordinate to men and were not involved in any major decision-making.- Their participation in public meetings was restricted.- Child marriages were becoming more common. |
| Varna-Ashrama | – No such system was prevalent during the early Vedic period. | – The texts mention three stages of life: Brahmacharya (student life), Grihastha (householder life), and Vanaprastha (hermitage).- Later on, sanyasa, the fourth stage, was added. – Together with varna, it came to be known as varna-ashrama dharma. |
| Tribal Conflicts | – The growing need for more pasture lands and cattle contributed to an increase in inter and intra-tribal conflicts and warfare.– Inter-tribal conflicts were frequent, an example being the battle of the Ten Kings mentioned in the Rigveda. | – The nature of intra-tribal conflicts and conflicts within tribes also changed.- Fights were now for the acquisition of land. |
| Gotra System | – In early Vedic society, no such system was prevalent. | – Gotra developed in this means that people having a common gotra descended from a common ancestor, and no marriage between the members of the same gotra could take place. |
| Marriage | – Marriage was typically monogamous, but chiefs occasionally practised polygamy. | – Despite the prevalence of polygamy, monogamous marriages were preferred. |
| Social Groups | – Occupation was not based on birth.- Varna, or colour, was used to distinguish between Vedic and non-Vedic people. | – The division of social groups was based on occupation alone, and society was still flexible, where one’s occupation did not depend on birth. |
Religious Traditions in the Vedic Period
The religious beliefs of the Vedic people are reflected in the songs of the Rigveda. They imbued nature with a deity imagined in human shapes and adored the natural forces that surrounded them, such as wind, water, rain, thunder, fire, and so on, over which they had no control.
| Features | Religious Life of Early Vedic Period | Religious Life of Later Vedic Period |
| Rigvedic Gods | – Indra, Agni, Varuna, Mitra, Dyaus, Pushana, Yama, Soma, etc are all male gods. – Many goddesses, such as Ushas, Sarasvati, and Prithvi, hold secondary positions in the pantheon.- The most frequently mentioned god in the Rigveda is Indra. | – Vishnu and Rudra, who were minor deities in the Rigveda, rose to prominence.- Pushan, who used to protect cattle, became the Shudra god. |
| Yajnas | – In sacrifices, hymns and prayers were recited, and these yajnas were typically performed by priests. – The sacrificial ritual also resulted in the expansion and development of knowledge of mathematics and animal anatomy. | – Important yajnas included ashvamedha, vajapeya, and rajasuya.- Toward the end of this period, a strong reaction against priestly dominance over the complexities of the yajnas led to the formulation of a philosophical doctrine that is laid out in the Upanishads. |
Economic Life During the Vedic Period
Numerous examples of the importance of cattle in Vedic civilization may be found in the Rigvedic hymns.
- Many more terms have their roots in the word “gau,” which means “cow.”
- The main indicator of wealth was cattle, and a wealthy person with a large herd was called a “gomat.”
- During this time, terminology like gavishti, gavesana, and gavyat were used to describe conflicts and warfare.
- The chief, or raja, is referred to as the “gopati,” meaning one who looks out for cows.
- The Rigveda uses the term “Godhuli” to refer to a unit of time.
- The term for distance is gavyuti.
- A duhitri, or one who milks the cows, is the term used to describe a daughter.
- Units of kinship are called gotra.
| Features | Economic Life of the Early Vedic Period | Economic Life of Later Vedic Period |
| Occupational Activity | – Cattle raising was the main profession in pastoral societies. | – shift from an agricultural, pastoral civilization to one that is sedentary. |
| Agriculture | – ‘Yava’ and barley are the only grains identified.Agriculture was practiced with a shift. | – The people’s main food was rice. The Vedic writings refer to rice as Vrihi, Tandula, and Sali. It seems that double cropping was also done at this time.- In addition to barley, humans began cultivating rice, wheat, millet, sugarcane, pulses, lentils, and other crops. |
| Domestication of animals | – The purposes of raising horses, sheep, goats, and cattle were for milk, meat, and leather. | – The objective of domesticating the buffalo was for agricultural use. It was at this period that the God Indra was titled “Lord of the Plough.” |
| Taxes | – The people offered the chief what was known as Bali, which was essentially a gratuitous gift given on important occasions by common tribesmen.- Regarding tax collection, no officer was specified. | – Over time, Bali, Bhaga, and Shulka came to represent recurring levies and tributes.- Bhagalugha: A revenue collector. |
| Iron Technology | – They were familiar with copper and didn’t use iron technology. | – The efficiency of agriculture was improved by iron-tipped hoes and ploughshares, as well as iron-socketed axes. |
| Medium of Exchange | – The most widely used medium of trade was cows. For offering sacrifices, priests were rewarded with cows, horses, and gold jewelry. | – Later on, gold coins known as Niskha were utilized for financial transactions. |
